Philosophers You Should Read

Preface

Below is a relatively short list of philosophers. I’ve selected 10 philosophers from each of the major time periods in philosophy. Obviously, this is a tiny fragment of the actual philosophers in each of these time periods. I’m simply trying to provide some recommendations. They are not arranged in any order within the time periods. Regardless, below is the list and a short summary of the philosopher’s contributions, origins, and impacts to later topics. Enjoy!

Ancient Philosophers (600 B. C. — 600)

Plato (428 — 348 B.C.) was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, and teacher of Aristotle, whose works profoundly influenced Western philosophy. His philosophy is primarily expressed through dialogues, where Socrates often plays the lead role, engaging in dialectic to explore philosophical concepts. Plato's most famous work, "The Republic," discusses justice, the ideal state, and the nature of reality through the allegory of the cave, illustrating how humans perceive only shadows of true forms. He developed the Theory of Forms, suggesting that the physical world is a mere imitation of a higher, eternal realm of perfect, unchanging ideas or forms. Plato's philosophy also delves into epistemology, ethics, politics, and metaphysics, advocating for the idea that true knowledge is not derived from sensory experience but from intellectual contemplation of these forms. His Academy in Athens was one of the earliest institutions of higher learning in the Western world, and his ideas on the soul, the afterlife, and the importance of philosophical inquiry have had lasting impacts on various fields of thought.

Aristotle (384 — 322 B.C.) was a Greek philosopher whose vast body of work has profoundly influenced almost every field of Western philosophy, including metaphysics, ethics, politics, logic, and science. A student of Plato and teacher to Alexander the Great, Aristotle's philosophy emphasized empirical observation and logical reasoning. His "Metaphysics" explores the nature of being and causality, introducing concepts like the "Four Causes" to explain why things exist. In ethics, his "Nicomachean Ethics" outlines the pursuit of eudaimonia (often translated as "flourishing" or "happiness"), achieved through virtue, which lies in a mean between excess and deficiency. Politically, Aristotle's "Politics" discusses the ideal state, arguing that humans are by nature political animals and that the best form of government balances the interests of the rich and the poor. His work in logic, particularly the syllogism, laid the foundation for formal logic. Aristotle's scientific inquiries, including biology, physics, and psychology, while now outdated in specifics, were groundbreaking for their systematic approach. His philosophy has endured as a cornerstone of Western thought, influencing medieval scholasticism, Renaissance humanism, and beyond.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 — 43 B.C.) was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, orator, and political theorist who significantly influenced the development of Western philosophy and political theory. Renowned for his eloquent speeches and writings, Cicero was not a philosopher in the systematic sense like Plato or Aristotle, but he played a crucial role in translating and interpreting Greek philosophy for the Roman world, thereby making it accessible to Latin-speaking audiences. His works, such as "De Oratore," "De Re Publica," and "De Legibus," explore themes of rhetoric, politics, law, and ethics. Cicero believed in the concept of natural law, arguing that there exists a universal moral law that transcends individual societies, which should guide human behavior and governance. He also emphasized the importance of virtue, duty, and the ideal of the citizen-statesman who serves the republic with wisdom and integrity. His political philosophy often reflected a deep commitment to the Roman Republic, advocating for a balanced constitution that includes elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Cicero's writings on friendship ("De Amicitia") and old age ("De Senectute") also offer insights into personal ethics and the human condition. His influence extends into the Renaissance and beyond, where his ideas on republicanism and civic duty were revived and adapted.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 B.C. — 65) was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, and dramatist who lived during the early Roman Empire. Seneca's philosophy, heavily influenced by Stoicism, emphasized practical ethics and personal virtue over theoretical discourse. His works, including letters to his friend Lucilius ("Moral Letters to Lucilius"), essays ("On the Shortness of Life," "On Tranquility of Mind"), and treatises ("De Beneficiis," "De Clementia"), focus on how to live in accordance with nature, manage emotions, and achieve tranquility amidst life's adversities. Seneca advocated for self-mastery, rational living, and the cultivation of wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance as the path to eudaimonia (a good or fulfilled life). He believed in the Stoic principle that external events are beyond our control, but we can control our reactions and judgments. This philosophy encouraged resilience and indifference to both pleasure and pain, promoting a life of simplicity and virtue. Seneca's writings also reflect on themes of death, the nature of the good life, and the importance of time, urging readers to focus on what truly matters rather than being distracted by the superficial. His political life under the emperors Caligula, Claudius, and Nero was tumultuous, and he was eventually forced to commit suicide by Nero. Despite this, his philosophical works have endured, influencing later Stoic thought and providing guidance on how to live ethically and with inner peace in a turbulent world.

Marcus Aurelius (121 — 180) was a Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 AD and one of the most prominent Stoic philosophers. His philosophical work, "Meditations," was not intended for publication but rather as personal notes and reflections, offering insights into Stoic philosophy through his own life experiences. Marcus Aurelius's philosophy emphasizes self-discipline, rationality, and the acceptance of one's fate as part of the universal order. He advocated for living in accordance with nature, which for Stoics meant aligning one's will with the rational structure of the universe. Key themes in his work include the impermanence of life, the importance of virtue over external success, and the idea that the mind can make a hell of heaven or a heaven of hell. Marcus Aurelius believed in the interconnectedness of all things and the duty of individuals to contribute to the common good. His approach to Stoicism focuses on controlling one's own reactions to external events, practicing mindfulness, and maintaining equanimity in the face of adversity. His writings reflect a deep contemplation on mortality, urging readers to focus on what is within their control, to act justly, and to accept whatever happens with grace and without complaint. Marcus Aurelius's philosophy has been influential in shaping later Stoic thought and continues to inspire those seeking guidance on how to live a good life amidst the challenges of power, duty, and personal struggle.

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480 — 524) was a pivotal figure in the transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, serving as a Roman senator and philosopher under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. His most famous work, "The Consolation of Philosophy," written during his imprisonment for alleged treason, explores themes of fate, free will, and the nature of happiness through a dialogue with Lady Philosophy. This work became a cornerstone of medieval literature and philosophy. Besides philosophy, Boethius contributed significantly to theology, logic, and music theory, with his translations and commentaries on Aristotle's works preserving Greek philosophy for medieval scholars. His efforts to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy greatly influenced the development of scholasticism, making him a bridge between the ancient world and medieval Christian Europe.

Plotinus (204 — 270) was a major Hellenistic philosopher who is considered the founder of Neoplatonism, a philosophical school that profoundly influenced Western and Middle Eastern thought. His teachings were compiled by his student Porphyry into six sets of nine treatises, known as the "Enneads." Plotinus's philosophy centers on the concept of 'the One' or 'the Good,' an ineffable, transcendent source from which all existence emanates. From the One comes the Intellect (Nous), where ideas or Forms exist in a timeless and perfect state, and then the Soul, which interacts with the material world. His metaphysical writings describe a process of emanation where each level of reality flows from the previous, yet he also emphasized the return or ascent of the soul to the divine through contemplation and ethical living. Plotinus's ideas on the nature of beauty, the soul's journey, and the structure of reality not only shaped later Greek philosophy but also had significant impacts on Christian, Jewish, and Islamic mysticism and theology.

Epictetus (50 — 135) was a Greek Stoic philosopher who, despite being born into slavery in Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, Turkey), rose to become one of the most influential teachers of Stoicism. His teachings were recorded by his pupil Arrian in the "Discourses" and the "Enchiridion" (or "Handbook"). Epictetus focused on ethics and the development of personal virtue, emphasizing the distinction between what is in our control (our own actions, judgments, and desires) and what is not (external events, other people's actions, our bodies). He taught that true freedom is found in accepting fate (amor fati), maintaining inner tranquility by not being disturbed by external events, and living in accordance with nature. His philosophy advocates for a life of simplicity, self-discipline, and moral integrity, influencing not only later Stoics but also shaping the philosophical outlook of many, including Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Epicurus (341 — 270 B.C.) was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded Epicureanism, a school of philosophy that emphasized the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain as the primary goals of life. However, Epicurus's understanding of pleasure was quite nuanced; he advocated for ataraxia (tranquility) and aponia (absence of pain), suggesting that true pleasure comes from modest living, the satisfaction of basic needs, and the absence of fear. His teachings, often misunderstood as hedonistic, actually recommended a life of simplicity, friendship, and philosophical reflection. Epicurus believed that the universe was made of atoms and void, and he rejected the idea of divine intervention in human affairs, promoting instead a materialistic view where the soul dissipates at death, thus freeing humans from the fear of the afterlife. His philosophy was laid out in his school, the Garden, where he welcomed people from all walks of life, including women and slaves, which was revolutionary at the time. Epicurus's ideas were preserved through his letters and maxims, and through the work of later followers like Lucretius, whose poem "De Rerum Natura" expounds Epicurean philosophy.

Sextus Empiricus (160 — 210) was a physician and Pyrrhonist philosopher, best known for his works in skepticism, which provide the most complete account of ancient Greek and Roman skepticism. His writings, particularly "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" and "Against the Mathematicians," serve as key texts for understanding Pyrrhonian skepticism. Sextus outlined the skeptical approach of suspending judgment (epoché) on all non-evident matters, leading to ataraxia (tranquility), as the skeptic finds peace in not asserting or denying any dogmatic belief. He detailed the modes or tropes by which skeptics could question the reliability of sensory perception, reasoning, and any claims to knowledge, arguing that for every argument there exists an equally convincing counter-argument. His work not only preserved skeptical thought but also influenced later philosophers, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment, when his texts were rediscovered, impacting the development of modern philosophy, especially in discussions about the limits of knowledge and the nature of certainty.

Medieval Philosophers (600 — 1600)

Anselm of Canterbury (1033 — 1109) was a pivotal figure in medieval philosophy and theology, known as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God. This argument posits that God, defined as the greatest conceivable being, must exist in reality because existence is a necessary attribute of perfection. Anselm served as the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 until his death in 1109, during which he often clashed with the English monarchy over church rights and independence, leading to his exile on more than one occasion. His works, including "Proslogion" and "Cur Deus Homo" (Why God Became Man), delve into the nature of God, the necessity of the Incarnation, and the concept of satisfaction for sin, significantly influencing Western theology and philosophy. Anselm sought to reconcile reason with faith, laying foundational ideas for scholasticism.

Maimonides (1135 — 1204) was a Jewish philosopher, astronomer, and physician. He is one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars of the Middle Ages. In his monumental works, like the "Mishneh Torah," he codified Jewish law, making it accessible and systematic, while in "The Guide for the Perplexed," he sought to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Jewish theology, arguing that faith and reason are not in conflict but complementary. Forced to flee persecution in Spain, Maimonides eventually settled in Egypt, where he became the head of the Jewish community and served as a court physician to the Sultan. His philosophical and medical writings had a profound impact not only within Judaism but also on Christian and Islamic scholars. Maimonides died in 1204, leaving behind a legacy that continues to influence religious thought, ethics, and legal systems.

John of Salisbury (1110 — 1180) was a leading medieval philosopher, historian, and church diplomat, renowned for his contributions to political theory, particularly through his work "Policraticus." This book, often considered the first complete work of political theory in the Middle Ages, discusses the structure of an ideal society, the duties of kings and princes, and famously introduces the concept of the body politic, where the state is analogized to a human body with different parts representing various societal functions. John emphasized the importance of education, moral governance, and the rule of law, arguing that a tyrant could be lawfully opposed or even killed if they abused their power. Besides his political insights, he was a close friend and secretary to Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, which placed him in the midst of the conflict between Becket and King Henry II. John's letters and historical accounts provide valuable insights into 12th-century church-state relations. He died in 1180, leaving behind a legacy as a proponent of classical learning and ethical governance.

Thomas Aquinas (1225 — 1274) was a Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church, immensely influential in the tradition of scholasticism. He is best known for his work "Summa Theologica," where he attempts to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of Christianity, discussing topics from the existence of God to the nature of sin, law, and ethics. Aquinas proposed the Five Ways (Quinque viae) to prove God's existence through natural reason. His philosophy emphasized that reason and faith are in harmony, with reason being capable of operating within faith yet independent in its sphere. Aquinas also contributed significantly to the concepts of just war and natural law. His influence extends beyond theology into Western philosophy, where he's regarded as a cornerstone for understanding medieval thought. Aquinas died in 1274, but his works have remained fundamental in Catholic education and theological study.

Duns Scotus (1266 — 1308) was a Franciscan friar whose contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, and the philosophy of will have had lasting impacts. Scotus is celebrated for his theory of the univocity of being, arguing that the term "being" applies to God and creatures in the same sense, which was a significant departure from the analogical predication supported by contemporaries like Thomas Aquinas. He also developed the concept of haecceity, or "thisness," which addresses the principle of individuation, distinguishing one individual from another. His emphasis on the primacy of the will over the intellect, and his defense of the Immaculate Conception of Mary, set him apart in scholastic debates, leading to the formation of Scotism, a distinct school of thought within scholasticism. Scotus's works, often left in a somewhat unfinished state due to his early death in 1308, continue to influence both philosophical and theological discussions.

William of Ockham (1287 — 1347) was known primarily for the philosophical principle called "Occam's Razor," which advises against making more assumptions than necessary when explaining phenomena. He was a Franciscan friar who studied at Oxford, where his ideas often challenged the established views, particularly in epistemology, metaphysics, and the relationship between church and state. His advocacy for nominalism—the idea that universal concepts are merely names and do not exist in reality—set him apart from many contemporaries. Despite his excommunication due to conflicts with the papacy over the Franciscan vow of poverty and political writings, his influence persisted, impacting logic, scientific inquiry, and theological debates with his emphasis on simplicity and empirical evidence.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 — 1527) was a diplomat, political philosopher, and writer, best known for his seminal work, "The Prince." This book, intended as a guide for rulers, explores the often ruthless mechanics of power and governance, advocating for the notion that the ends justify the means. Machiavelli's pragmatic, if not controversial, advice diverged from the moralistic political theories of his time, emphasizing the importance of a leader's ability to adapt, use force when necessary, and maintain power by any means to ensure the stability and success of the state. Beyond "The Prince," his works include "Discourses on Livy," where he discusses republicanism and civic virtue, reflecting his broader interest in the dynamics of political systems. His name has become synonymous with cunning and duplicity in politics, a legacy that overshadows his contributions to political science, history, and his service to the Florentine Republic. Machiavelli died in 1527, but his ideas continue to provoke debate and analysis in the study of political theory.

Roger Bacon (1214 — 1294) was an English philosopher, often known as Doctor Mirabilis (Latin for "Wonderful Teacher"), and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on empirical methods and is sometimes credited as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method. Born around 1214, Bacon studied at Oxford and Paris, where he was influenced by the works of Aristotle and later Islamic scholars. His most notable work, "Opus Majus," covers topics from mathematics, optics, and alchemy to the manufacture of gunpowder and the position and size of celestial bodies. Bacon argued for the importance of experiment and mathematics in science, making significant contributions to the field of optics, including the study of lenses and the reflection and refraction of light. His advocacy for reform in education and science, emphasizing the utility of knowledge and criticizing the reliance on authority, made him a precursor to the scientific revolution. Despite his forward-thinking ideas, his life was marked by conflicts with his superiors, leading to periods of confinement. Bacon died around 1294, leaving behind a legacy that would influence the development of science in Western Europe.

John Wycliffe (1320 — 1384) was a seminal figure in the early stages of the Protestant Reformation, often called the "Morning Star of the Reformation." A theologian, philosopher, and translator, Wycliffe was an Oxford professor who became known for his critique of the Catholic Church's wealth, corruption, and the doctrine of transubstantiation. He advocated for the Bible as the sole authority for Christian doctrine, leading him to undertake the first complete translation of the Bible into English from Latin, making scripture more accessible to the common people. His teachings inspired the Lollard movement, which emphasized personal faith, predestination, and the priesthood of all believers. Wycliffe's ideas were deemed heretical by the Church, leading to his posthumous condemnation; his writings were banned, and his remains were exhumed and burned in 1428. However, his influence persisted, paving the way for later reformers like Jan Hus and Martin Luther.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 — 1494) was a Renaissance philosopher known for his prodigious intellect and his attempt to synthesize various philosophical traditions. At a remarkably young age, he wrote the "Oration on the Dignity of Man," often cited as a manifesto of the Renaissance humanism, where he famously argued that humans have the unique ability to choose their nature, making them the masters of their destiny. Pico sought to reconcile different schools of thought, including Platonism, Aristotelianism, Hermeticism, and Kabbalah, in an ambitious project to find a universal truth. He proposed to defend 900 theses on religion, philosophy, natural philosophy, and magic in Rome, but the debate never occurred due to papal condemnation of some of his theses as heretical. Pico's work emphasized the potential for human achievement and the unity of truth, influencing the development of Renaissance thought. His life was cut short when he died under mysterious circumstances in 1494, possibly by poisoning, but his ideas continued to inspire scholars and philosophers.

Modern Philosophers (1600 — 2000)

Rene Descartes (1596 — 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who is often considered the father of modern philosophy. His most famous contribution is the development of Cartesian dualism, which posits a fundamental distinction between mind (res cogitans) and body (res extensa), suggesting that while the body is physical, the mind or soul is non-physical and capable of existing independently. Descartes is also renowned for his method of doubt, where he questioned all knowledge to find a foundation for certainty, leading to his famous assertion, "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). This statement became the cornerstone of his philosophy, providing a basis for knowledge that could not be doubted because the very act of doubting one's own existence served as proof of the reality of one's own mind. His work extended into mathematics, where he developed the Cartesian coordinate system, and into physics, where he proposed mechanistic explanations for natural phenomena. Descartes's emphasis on clear and distinct ideas and his advocacy for skepticism as a path to truth have profoundly influenced subsequent philosophical thought, particularly in epistemology and metaphysics.

Blaise Pascal (1623 — 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer, and Christian philosopher, renowned for his contributions to both science and theology. In mathematics, he is known for Pascal's Triangle and his work on probability theory, which laid foundations for modern economics and social science. However, Pascal's philosophical and theological writings, particularly his "Pensées" ("Thoughts"), have had a profound impact. In "Pensées," Pascal defends Christianity, arguing for the existence of God through the famous "Wager," which posits that a rational person should live as though God exists because the potential gain (eternal life) outweighs the potential loss (a finite life of restraint). He emphasized the limitations of human reason in understanding the divine, advocating for a leap of faith. Pascal's work also delves into human psychology, the nature of happiness, and the human condition, highlighting the paradoxes of life where humans seek happiness but often find misery. His dual focus on the heart and reason, suggesting that the heart has its reasons which reason cannot know, underscores his belief in the complexity of human experience and the necessity of faith.

Immanuel Kant (1724 — 1804) was a German philosopher whose work initiated a paradigm shift in philosophical thought, particularly in epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics. His most influential work, "Critique of Pure Reason," argues that while human knowledge originates in experience, it is structured by innate mental categories that shape how we perceive and understand the world. Kant posited that we can know phenomena (things as they appear to us) but not noumena (things in themselves). In ethics, his "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals" introduced the categorical imperative, a principle of morality stating that one should act only according to maxims that one could will to become universal laws. This deontological approach emphasizes duty and the inherent worth of rational beings, advocating for actions based on reason rather than consequences or desires. Kant's philosophy also explored aesthetics in "Critique of Judgment," linking beauty to a disinterested pleasure and moral judgment. His ideas have profoundly influenced subsequent philosophy, bridging rationalism and empiricism, and laying groundwork for modern philosophy, ethics, and political theory.

Adam Smith (1723 — 1790) was a Scottish philosopher and economist, widely regarded as the father of modern economics. Born in 1723, his most famous work, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776), laid the foundation for classical free market economic theory. In this seminal book, Smith introduced the concept of the "invisible hand," suggesting that individual self-interest in a free market inadvertently benefits society at large by efficiently allocating resources. He argued for minimal government intervention in economic affairs, promoting the idea that economies thrive on competition, division of labor, and the pursuit of self-interest. Beyond economics, Smith's earlier work, "The Theory of Moral Sentiments," explored the nature of morality and human behavior, emphasizing sympathy and the natural order of ethics. His ideas not only influenced economic policies but also contributed to the philosophical discourse on human nature and societal organization.

Thomas Hobbes (1588 — 1679) was an English philosopher, best known for his work in political philosophy. Hobbes's most famous book, "Leviathan" (1651), laid out his social contract theory, where he argued that in a state of nature, human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." To avoid this, individuals cede some of their rights to a sovereign or an assembly in exchange for protection and the maintenance of social order. This sovereign, whether a monarch or a governing body, would have absolute power to enforce the contract, ensuring peace and preventing civil war. Hobbes's view of human nature was quite pessimistic, seeing humans as fundamentally self-interested and power-seeking. His ideas significantly influenced the development of political science, advocating for a strong central authority to curb the innate chaos of human society, thereby providing a foundation for modern political theory regarding the role of the state and the nature of sovereignty.

William James (1842 — 1910) was an American philosopher and psychologist who was a pivotal figure in the development of both fields in the United States. Often considered the father of American psychology, James's most famous work, "The Principles of Psychology," laid the groundwork for functionalism, emphasizing the purpose of consciousness and behavior. His philosophy, particularly Pragmatism, as outlined in "Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking," argued that the truth of an idea is best tested by its practical consequences and its usefulness in solving problems. James also contributed to religious studies with "The Varieties of Religious Experience," where he explored personal religious experiences as valid forms of knowledge, suggesting that belief in a higher power could be psychologically beneficial. His work extended into metaphysics, ethics, and education, advocating for a pluralistic universe and the importance of individual experience in understanding reality. James's pragmatic approach and his focus on the stream of consciousness have had lasting impacts on philosophy, psychology, and the broader intellectual culture.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813 — 1855) was a Danish philosopher and theologian considered the father of existentialism. His works, often written under various pseudonyms, delve deeply into themes of individual existence, freedom, and the nature of faith. In "Fear and Trembling," he explores the story of Abraham's near-sacrifice of Isaac to discuss the paradox of faith, where true faith involves a leap beyond rational understanding. Kierkegaard's philosophy emphasizes subjective truth over objective knowledge, arguing that truth is found in personal, passionate inwardness rather than in external, objective facts. He critiqued the Hegelian system for its abstract, impersonal approach to life, advocating instead for the individual's confrontation with life's existential choices. His concepts of despair, the aesthetic, ethical, and religious stages of life, and the importance of becoming an authentic self through personal commitment have profoundly influenced existentialist thought, psychology, and modern theology.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 — 1900) was a German philosopher whose radical ideas have profoundly influenced modern thought, particularly in philosophy, psychology, and cultural criticism. His philosophy is characterized by a critique of traditional values, morality, and religion, encapsulated in his proclamation of "God is dead," signaling the decline of traditional Christian values in Western society. Nietzsche introduced several key concepts: the "Will to Power," suggesting that the fundamental drive in humans and perhaps all life is an assertion of power and dominance; the "Übermensch" or "Superman," an ideal of human greatness that transcends traditional morality to create new values; and "Eternal Recurrence," a thought experiment where one must affirm life by desiring its eternal repetition. His works, including "Thus Spoke Zarathustra," "Beyond Good and Evil," and "On the Genealogy of Morality," challenge readers to rethink the foundations of their beliefs, advocating for a life-affirming philosophy against what he saw as the life-denying aspects of traditional morality and religion. Nietzsche's ideas have been both celebrated for their depth and criticized for their potential misinterpretation, notably by the Nazis, though his philosophy was far more complex and individualistic than any political appropriation suggests.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 — 1860) was a German philosopher known for his pessimistic philosophy that emphasized the role of the will in human behavior and the suffering inherent in life. His most influential work, "The World as Will and Representation," posits that the world is fundamentally a manifestation of a blind, irrational will to live, which drives all living beings. Schopenhauer argued that human desire and striving are endless, leading inevitably to suffering, as satisfaction is always temporary. He was deeply influenced by Immanuel Kant, Eastern philosophies like Buddhism and Hinduism, and he in turn influenced figures like Friedrich Nietzsche, Richard Wagner, and existentialist thinkers. Schopenhauer's philosophy also includes a strong aesthetic component, suggesting that art, particularly music, offers a temporary escape from the pain of willing by allowing one to grasp the universal essence of life. His views on compassion and asceticism as means to mitigate suffering also highlight his ethical thought, advocating for a life of minimal desire to reduce personal and collective pain.

Edmund Burke (1729 — 1797) was an Irish statesman, economist, and philosopher, who is often regarded as the father of modern conservatism. His political career in Britain, where he served as a member of the Whig Party in Parliament, was marked by his eloquent advocacy for gradual reform rather than revolutionary change. Burke is best known for his "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790), where he criticized the French Revolution's radicalism, predicting its descent into chaos and tyranny. He argued for the importance of tradition, established institutions, and organic societal evolution, emphasizing that society should change through evolution, not revolution. Burke also supported the American colonies in their grievances against British policy, not because he agreed with revolutionary ideals, but because he believed in the rights of Englishmen and the need for just governance. His thoughts on aesthetics, particularly in "A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful," also contributed to the philosophy of art. Burke's ideas on politics, economics, and society have had a lasting impact, influencing conservative thought for centuries.

Contemporary Philosophers (2000 — Present)

Cornel West (1953 — Present) is a prominent American philosopher, political activist, social critic, and public intellectual. Known for his work in the areas of race, class, and justice, West's philosophy blends Christianity, Marxism, and the traditions of the black prophetic tradition. He has taught at prestigious institutions like Harvard, Princeton, and Union Theological Seminary. West's influential books, such as "Race Matters" and "Democracy Matters," address issues of racial inequality, democratic decay, and the moral obligations of societies. He advocates for a form of democratic socialism, emphasizing the need for love, justice, and solidarity in public life. West is also known for his public engagement, often appearing in media to comment on contemporary issues, participating in protests, and even acting in films like "The Matrix" series as a cultural commentator. His activism and scholarship aim to bridge the gap between academic theory and practical, transformative action in society.

Thomas Nagel (1937— Present) is an American philosopher renowned for his contributions to the philosophy of mind, ethics, and political theory. He is perhaps best known for his 1974 paper "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?", which explores the subjective nature of consciousness, arguing that there are aspects of experience (qualia) that cannot be fully understood from an objective, third-person perspective. This work has been pivotal in discussions about the mind-body problem. Nagel's book "Mortal Questions" delves into issues like death, the absurd, and sexual perversion, while "The View from Nowhere" examines the tension between subjective and objective viewpoints. In political philosophy, his work "Equality and Partiality" addresses the conflicts between personal and impersonal standpoints in ethics and politics. Throughout his career at New York University, Nagel has challenged reductionist views in philosophy, advocating for a more nuanced understanding of human experience and moral life.

Jordan Peterson (1962— Present) is a clinical psychologist, author, and cultural critic who rose to prominence through his critiques of political correctness, identity politics, and his interpretations of psychological, philosophical, and mythological texts. Peterson first gained widespread attention with his opposition to Canadian Bill C-16, which he argued could compel speech regarding gender pronouns, thereby infringing on free speech rights. His book "12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos" became an international bestseller, offering life advice through a blend of psychology, mythology, religion, and personal anecdotes. Peterson's lectures and interviews, often discussing topics like the importance of individual responsibility, the psychological significance of biblical stories, and the structure of belief systems, have amassed millions of views online. His work emphasizes the pursuit of meaning over happiness, the importance of traditional values, and the dangers of ideological possession. Peterson's approach has sparked considerable controversy and debate, positioning him as a central figure in contemporary cultural discussions about freedom, identity, and the role of tradition in modern society.

Roger Scruton (1944 — 2020) was a prolific British philosopher and writer, known for his conservative viewpoints and his extensive work in aesthetics, politics, and cultural criticism. Born in 1944, Scruton authored over fifty books, addressing subjects like beauty, sexual morality, architecture, and the philosophy of music, making significant contributions to the discussion of conservatism in modern times. He was deeply involved in the intellectual resistance against communist regimes in Eastern Europe, supporting dissidents which earned him several accolades, including medals from the Czech Republic and Poland. Scruton's philosophy often emphasized the importance of tradition, beauty, and cultural heritage in sustaining societal bonds. His work extended beyond academia into public life, where he was both celebrated and controversial for his defense of conservative values and critique of modern liberalism. Knighted in 2016 for his services to philosophy, teaching, and public education, Scruton passed away in 2020 after battling cancer, leaving behind a legacy as a staunch defender of conservative thought and cultural critique.

Slavoj Žižek (1949 — Present) is a philosopher, cultural critic, and psychoanalytic theorist known for his unique blend of Lacanian psychoanalysis, Hegelian dialectics, and Marxist political theory. His work is characterized by its provocative style, often integrating high theory with popular culture to critique contemporary political and cultural phenomena. Žižek's philosophy explores the nature of ideology, the concept of the "Real" in Lacanian terms, and the critique of political and economic systems. His approach often involves challenging conventional perceptions of reality and ideology, suggesting that what we understand as reality is mediated through ideological fantasies. He gained international prominence with works like "The Sublime Object of Ideology," where he explores how ideologies work through the mechanism of enjoyment and the illusion of free choice. Žižek is also noted for his critique of global capitalism, his discussions on the nature of freedom in post-political societies, and his controversial political stances, including his views on the conflicts in Eastern Europe and the ideological underpinnings of both left and right political movements. His prolific output includes books, essays, and public lectures, making him a significant, if contentious, figure in contemporary philosophy and cultural theory.

Michael Malice (1976 — Present) is a Ukrainian-American author, podcaster, and anarchist commentator, known for his provocative insights into politics and culture. Born in 1976 in Lviv, Ukraine, he moved to the United States where he became involved in various media projects. Malice is the co-creator of the "Overheard in New York" blog, has authored several books including "Dear Reader: The Unauthorized Autobiography of Kim Jong Il" and "The New Right: A Journey to the Fringe of American Politics," and hosts the podcast "YOUR WELCOME." His work often explores the extremes of political ideologies, the nature of evil, and the critique of authority, earning him a reputation as a controversial figure in political commentary. Malice's approach combines humor with a sharp critique of both left and right political spheres, making him a significant voice in alternative media.

Judith Butler (1956 — Present) is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has profoundly influenced feminist theory, queer theory, political philosophy, and ethics. Best known for their book "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity," Butler introduced the concept of gender performativity, arguing that gender is not a fixed identity but a performance, something one does rather than something one is. This idea challenges the binary understanding of sex and gender, suggesting that both are socially constructed through repeated acts. Their subsequent work, like "Bodies That Matter," further explores how the materiality of bodies is bound up with the regulatory norms through which sexual difference is produced. Butler's contributions extend to ethics and politics, particularly in how bodies are recognized or disavowed within societal frameworks, influencing discussions on precarity, mourning, and violence. Their academic work at the University of California, Berkeley, and numerous published texts continue to shape discussions on identity, power, and resistance in contemporary society.

Peter Singer (1946 — Present) is a moral philosopher best known for his work in bioethics, animal rights, and utilitarianism. His book "Animal Liberation" is often credited with sparking the modern animal rights movement by arguing that the interests of animals should be given equal consideration to those of humans, based on their capacity to suffer. Singer's utilitarian philosophy focuses on maximizing overall happiness or pleasure while minimizing suffering, leading him to controversial positions on issues like euthanasia, abortion, and infanticide, where he argues from the perspective of the quality of life rather than the sanctity of life. His principle of "effective altruism" encourages individuals to consider how they can do the most good with their resources, influencing philanthropy and ethical living. Singer has been a professor at Princeton University, where his teachings and writings continue to challenge conventional ethics, prompting significant debate in both academic and public spheres.

Douglas Murray (1979 — Present) is a British author, journalist, and political commentator known for his conservative views and critique of immigration policies and Islam's role in Europe. Born on July 16, 1979, he founded the Centre for Social Cohesion, which later became part of the Henry Jackson Society, where he served as an associate director. Murray's work often focuses on themes of cultural identity, the decline of Europe through what he describes as self-imposed cultural and demographic changes, and the critique of what he perceives as Europe's loss of faith in its own traditions and values. His most notable book, "The Strange Death of Europe: Immigration, Identity, Islam," argues that Europe is undergoing a form of cultural suicide due to mass immigration and a loss of traditional values. Critics have accused him of Islamophobia and promoting far-right ideologies, while supporters commend his forthright critique of contemporary European policy and cultural shifts. Murray is also an associate editor of The Spectator and frequently contributes to various other publications. His public statements and writings often stir controversy, positioning him as a prominent yet divisive figure in discussions about the future of Europe.

Daniel Dennett (1942— 2024) was an American philosopher, writer, and cognitive scientist whose research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary biology and cognitive science. He is one of the "Four Horsemen of New Atheism," alongside Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and the late Christopher Hitchens, advocating for a scientific understanding of religion and consciousness. Dennett's most influential work, "Consciousness Explained," attempts to demystify consciousness by arguing that it can be understood through the lens of physical and cognitive processes. His concept of the "intentional stance" suggests treating an entity as if it has beliefs and desires to predict its behavior, applicable to humans, animals, and even machines. In "Darwin's Dangerous Idea," he explores how Darwinian principles can be seen as a universal acid, affecting not just biology but culture, morality, and philosophy. Dennett's approach combines rigorous scientific inquiry with a clear, often controversial, exposition, making complex ideas accessible while challenging traditional views on free will, consciousness, and the nature of self.