Timeline of Western Philosophy

Preface

In a previous post, Philosophers You Should Read, I listed ten philosophers per each of the four main philosophical periods (Antiquity, Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary). Each period’s left and right boundaries are hardly agreed upon. When I initially made the other post I used a simplified method, in that all boundaries were rounded to the nearest century and based on a rough, academic guideline. What I’m aiming to do in this post is more accurately breakdown each of these periods by providing notable events to signify a start or stopping point. Again, I must note that the exact dates for most of what I’ll lay out below is widely disputed amongst historians and other such academics.

Antiquity (626 B. C. — 476)

Note: This main period is also called the Ancient Period.

Pre-Socratic Period (626 — 470 B.C.) The first Pre-Socratic philosopher is generally agreed to be Thales of Miletus, who was born in either 626 or 623 B.C. This period typically starts with the emergence of the three Milesians (Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes) of which Thales is born first, hence why I started this period with his birth year. The philosophers of this period were mostly concerned with Physical Cosmology (the study of the physical origins and evolution of the universe), but did also take an interest in other fields like ethics and societal norms. Overall, they sought to use Natural Law to answer all their inquiries. These philosophers tried to universalize their theories of the world, absent of empirical evidence usually for a lack of instrumentation, while introducing few new words or terms to the discussion. Major topics introduced in this period are the “First Cause,” Epistemology, and Ontology.

Socratic Period (470 — 322 B.C.) This period, sometimes called the Classical Period, is typically defined by the birth of Socrates in 470 B.C. to Aristotle’s death in 322 B.C. The main philosophers of this period were Socrates (as shown from Plato’s works primarily), Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates is often cited as the founder of Western Philosophy through the use of his Socratic Method. Plato, a student of Socrates, is often cited as one of the earliest sources of Idealism with his Platonic Idealism and most of his works are conversations rather than typical philosophical treatises. Aristotle, a student of Plato, wrote more distinctly than Plato, in significantly more subjects, while also being construed as the most important of the three due to his future impacts. Aristotle is also cited as the earliest philosopher to work on Formal Logic. There are many other philosophers in this period, but these three unanimously are the front runners. This period is also marked by a particular focus on Virtue Ethics.

Hellenistic Period (322 — 27 B.C.) Sometimes called the Post-Aristotelian Period as it begins with the death of Aristotle. The main philosophies of this period were Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Pyrrhonism. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 B.C. Epicureanism was founded around 307 B.C. based upon the teachings of Epicurus. Pyrrhonism was founded by Aenesidemus in the first century B.C. and said to have been inspired by the teachings of Pyrrho and Timon of Phlius in the fourth century B.C.

Roman Period (27 B.C. — 476) This period is bounded by the rise and fall of the Roman Empire. It should be noted that the Western Empire fell in 476 (the relevant date for this period), while the Eastern Empire lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The major figures of this period are: Cicero (first century B.C.), Seneca the Younger (first century), Epictetus (first and second century), Marcus Aurelius (second century), Boethius (fifth and sixth century), and Augustine of Hippo (fourth and fifth century). This also was during the formation of the Early Christians, notably Jesus of Nazareth.

Medieval Period (476 — 1637)

Early Medieval Period (476 — 1000) This period is occasionally called the Dark Ages, though contemporary historians argue against this term (for reasons I don’t fully know currently). The fall of the Western Empire of Rome in 476 is the starting point of this period. With the decline of the Western Roman Empire, much of classical philosophy was preserved in monasteries. Monasteries became centers of learning, where monks copied manuscripts, preserving classical texts. This was not just preservation but also a reinterpretation through a Christian lens. Figures like Boethius played a crucial role in translating and commenting on Greek and Roman works, particularly Plato and Aristotle. Philosophy during this period was heavily influenced by Christian theology. The focus shifted towards reconciling Christian doctrine with philosophical inquiry. Augustine of Hippo was pivotal in this regard, blending Neoplatonism with Christian thought in works like "Confessions" and "The City of God". His philosophy emphasized the soul's journey towards God, the nature of time, memory, and the existence of evil. The Early Middle Ages, while often overshadowed by the intellectual achievements of the classical world or the later medieval period, were crucial in preserving and adapting philosophical thought to a Christian framework. This period was not devoid of philosophical inquiry but rather transformed it, setting the stage for the intellectual revival of the High Middle Ages and beyond.

High Medieval Period (1000 — 1315) The coronation of Stephen I (Hungary) in 1000 signaled a recognition in Christian ideology. I have also taken this as this period’s starting point. The East–West Schism of 1054 formally separated the Christian church into two parts: Roman Catholicism in Western Europe and Eastern Orthodoxy in the east. It occurred when Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other. The Catholic Crusades occurred between the 11th and 13th centuries. They were conducted under papal authority, initially with the intent of reestablishing Christian rule in The Holy Land by taking the area from the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate. The new Christian method of learning was influenced by Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) from the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle - Scholasticism. Many scholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. They opposed Christian mysticism, and the Platonist-Augustinian belief that the mind is an immaterial substance. During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than a century there were more inventions developed and applied usefully than in the previous thousand years of human history all over the globe. The period saw major technological advances, including the adoption or invention of windmills, watermills, printing (though not yet with movable type), gunpowder, the astrolabe, glasses, scissors of the modern shape, a better clock, and greatly improved ships. The latter two advances made possible the dawn of the Age of Discovery. These inventions were influenced by foreign culture and society.

Late Medieval Period (1315 — 1440) Around 1350, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315–1317 (my reference point) and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it had been before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare as France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings. With the Black Death, the Hundred Years' War, and the Great Schism, there was a growing skepticism about the order of the universe and the Church's authority. This skepticism influenced philosophy, leading to a questioning of traditional knowledge and the beginnings of empirical thought. Scholasticism, with its method of critical thought and dialectic, began to wane. While it continued to be influential, its rigid structures were increasingly seen as insufficient for addressing the new challenges and knowledge emerging from broader contact with other cultures, scientific observations, and societal changes. With the fragmentation of authority, thinkers like Marsilius of Padua began to explore ideas of secular governance, the separation of church and state, and the consent of the governed, laying groundwork for later political theories.

Renaissance (1440 — 1637) The invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg was an immense advancement for mankind, enabling the mass production of literary works. Philosophers revisited Greek and Roman texts, leading to a revival of Plato, Aristotle, and Stoicism. I have taken this as on obvious starting point for the Renaissance. The Renaissance's intellectual basis was found in its version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman “humanitas” and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that "man is the measure of all things.” Humanism placed human beings at the center of philosophical inquiry, emphasizing human potential, achievements, and the study of classical antiquity. This shift from a God-centered to a human-centered worldview was revolutionary. There was a return to Aristotelian ethics, focusing on virtues like courage, generosity, and wisdom, but reinterpreted through a humanistic lens that emphasized personal development and civic virtue. The Renaissance emphasized education as a means to cultivate the whole person. This led to the development of humanistic education, focusing on rhetoric, grammar, history, and moral philosophy. The period saw the beginnings of skepticism towards received wisdom, encouraging critical inquiry and the questioning of traditional beliefs, setting the stage for the Enlightenment.

Modern Period (1637 — 1903)

Age of Reason (Enlightenment) (1637 — 1804) To kick off the Modern Period (the period where philosophy began to take its modern form), most academics cite the 1637 publication of Rene Descartes “Discourse on the Method.” Descartes proposes a method for clear thinking, emphasizing the division of problems into parts, starting with the simplest, and ensuring comprehensive analysis. He distinguishes between the mind and body, positing them as separate substances, and uses the existence of a perfect God to validate clear and distinct perceptions. This work not only reshapes philosophy by focusing on individual rational certainty but also influences the scientific method, advocating for a mathematical and mechanistic understanding of the natural world. The central doctrines of the Enlightenment were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the power of religious authorities. The Enlightenment featured a range of social ideas centered on the value of knowledge learned by way of Rationalism and of Empiricism. Bacon's Empiricism and Descartes' Rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for Enlightenment thinking.

The Romantic Ideal (1804 — 1903) The end of the Enlightenment has been associated with Kant’s death in 1804 and I would agree with this sentiment. The 19th century was dominated by British and German Idealism and Romanticism, hence why I have, in a witty sense, called this the Romantic Ideal. The purpose of the Romantic Movement was to advocate for the importance of subjectivity, imagination, and appreciation of nature in society and culture in response to the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. Returning to Idealism, German Idealism in the wake of Kant exploded, particularly lead by Fichte, his student Schelling, and Schopenhauer. The second half of the 19th century coincided with the creation of Darwinism, Positivism (by Comte), Marxism, Utilitarianism (by Mill), and American Pragmatism (by Peirce and James).

Contemporary Period (1903 — Present)

Professionalization Period (1903 — 1937) A period of roughly 40 years, kicked off by the publication in 1903 of G. E. Moore’s “Principia Ethica.” It started a process called Professionalization, which is the social process by which any trade or occupation establishes the group norms of conduct, acceptable qualifications for membership of the profession, a professional body or association to oversee the conduct of members of the profession, and some degree of demarcation of the qualified from unqualified amateurs. This is why nowadays we are significantly more concerned with the views and opinions of accredited professors (and other such people) in our views compared to someone who isn’t.

Critical Period (1937 — Present) This period starts with the publication in 1937 of Max Horkheimer’s “Traditional and Critical Theory.” Horkheimer’s work laid the foundation for Critical Theory (any approach in the humanities and social philosophy that focuses on society and culture’s attempts to reveal, critique, and challenge power structures). Marxism also heavily inspired the Critical Theory framework. Critical Theory spawned various theories, chief among them in current discourse being: Critical Race Theory, (Post-)Modernism, Post-Colonialism, (Post-)Structuralism, (Post-)Constructivism, etc. The most known philosophers in this period, in my opinion, are Foucault and Derrida. As it stands, society is still caught up in the thralls of Critical Theory, hence why I put this until the present.